Reintroduction

The reintroduction of sturgeon into the Drawa is a long-term process requiring international cooperation, as the first returns of sturgeons from the Baltic Ocean to the Drawa for spawning are expected not earlier than 10 years after release (Kolman et al. 2007).

From: Rivers of Europe , 2009

Reintroduction

Doug P. Armstrong , ... Axel Moehrenschlager , in Encyclopedia of Ecology (Second Edition), 2019

IUCN Reintroduction Specialist Grouping

Reintroductions are conceptually highly-seasoned for a wide variety of reasons, which can span potential benefits for individual species or for broader ecosystem function. Intertwined with such benefits are related motivations or outcomes that can span artful, sociological, cultural, political, or economic aspects. These in turn may differ according to species, calibration, and economic context. For example, considerations would differ for releases of corals on a small boulder in the ocean compared to those associated with reintroducing tigers into all Asian countries that might have habitat for them. Bringing species back to places from where they have disappeared is inherently appealing to many people, only expert intentions lone do not mean that reintroductions will be effective. Perceived benefits for certain considerations, such as reducing the likelihood of global species extinction, could too entail risks on other levels if, for case, the release of an organism might harm other species in the receiving ecosystem, threaten the livelihoods of local people, or compromise industrial interests. Overeagerness may effect in poorly planned reintroductions, but extreme hazard disfavor may upshot in useful translocations not being conducted. Scientifically based, prove-driven guidance tin help to curtail rash decisions on either finish of the spectrum, while improving the efficacy of actions that are taken.

By the 1980s the frequency, taxonomic multifariousness, and geographic variation of reintroductions was beginning to grow due to surging involvement spurned by actions for several high contour species (Table one). At the same fourth dimension, challenges and failures were starting to become more credible, especially through assessments of bird and mammal translocations. In particular, convict-bred individuals and sensitive or threatened species had relatively low rates of success at establishing populations. A principal shortcoming of most programs was that all-encompassing endeavor and resources were expended for release stages, but follow-up monitoring was generally express. This lack of data compromised the ability of managers to respond to issues inside reintroduction programs over time, and also hampered improvements to reintroduction practice in general.

To foreclose potentially irresponsible activities including releases of invasive species, while harnessing potentially positive deportment including reintroductions, the IUCN released "The IUCN Position Statement on Translocation of Living Organisms" in 1987. In the following year the IUCN Reintroduction Specialist Group (RSG) was founded to inform and encourage good practise in reintroductions, and to track such initiatives besides equally possible. The practitioners that came to constitute the RSG were distributed globally, had diverse expertise, and spanned many sectors including academia, government agencies, and nongovernment organizations. The IUCN Guidelines for Reintroductions were drafted past 1995, and officially printed by the RSG in 1998. These were the first official guidelines that IUCN released on any topic, and have been among the almost utilized conservation guidance documents worldwide. In addition to publications in the primary literature, the RSG has published five books of case studies.

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Restoration of Biodiversity, Overview

Joy B. Zedler , Roberto Lindig-Cisneros , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (2d Edition), 2013

Management Solutions

Reintroduction efforts are about efficient when the reasons for a species decline or extirpation are known. If unknown, hypothesized causes can be tested experimentally. For instance, Pavlic (1996) found that both fire and weed command were needed to reestablish Amsinckia grandiflora to northern California grasslands.

Repeated reintroductions are needed when a unmarried trial does not coincide with optimal atmospheric condition. In San Diego Bay, thin pollinators on a small intertidal isle limited seed production of Cordylanthus maritimus ssp. maritimus. Afterwards the reintroduction effort was moved to a larger salt marsh where upland patches supported ground-nesting bees, pollination, and seed production improved (Parsons and Zedler, 1997).

Hall (1987, in Primack, 1996) reviewed 15 plant reintroduction projects and provided this advice: (1) Use advisable planting techniques and match microsite conditions for each species. (two) Select sites carefully; include safe sites. (iii) Document the project in detail. (4) Maintain good growing weather (eliminate competitors). (5) Monitor over the long term. Griffith et al. (1989) reviewed animal reintroduction attempts, focusing on efforts in the U.s.a. following passage of the Endangered Species Act. Only 7% of the 93 species of birds and mammals were rare species; most were game species. Resulting guidelines were to: (1) Select quality habitat. (2) Consider life history features. (3) Innovate where competitors are lacking. (4) Use wild-defenseless animals. (5) Transplant big numbers of individuals.

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Wolf Recovery in Yellowstone National Park

Madeline K. Jackson , ... Douglas W. Smith , in Reference Module in Globe Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2021

Wolves in Yellowstone

Reintroduction began what is referred to every bit Stage 1 or "colonization" for wolves in YNP. Between 1995 and 2008, Stage one was characterized by a by and large positive population growth rate as wolves established themselves and numbers increased within the park. The population reached a record high in 2003 with 174 wolves in 14 packs. During the second phase, referred to as "saturation", population growth rate began to level out and the numbers of wolves in the park became stable at around 100 wolves in 10 packs. Packs in the park accept an average of around ten wolves with an individual wolf living for nigh 4–5  years. The average dwelling range size for each pack varies based on where the pack lives in the park.

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Restoration

Robert J. Naiman , ... Gene E. Likens , in Riparia, 2005

Reintroducing Big Woody Droppings

The reintroduction of big woody debris to rivers facilitates aquatic habitat restoration. This is particularly then where riparia have been exploited to the degree that they no longer deliver large wood, or the proper species, to neighboring streams. Considerable large woody debris has been introduced directly to many streams in gild to restore habitat heterogeneity, biodiversity, and fish productivity, particularly in northwestern America, but with uncertain effects when focused on pocket-size spatial scales (Frissell and Ralph 1998). Reintroducing large woods to streams requires attention to processes rather than just construction, and a determination of the appropriate location, size, species, and corporeality of wood. It is likewise necessary to tailor the prescription toward the stream type and from one department of a stream to some other depending on the physical surroundings.

The many functions of large woody debris are known to vary with the width of the stream (Beechie and Sibley 1997). For instance, stream shade and effective large woody debris size are functions of the size of the copse relative to the size of the stream. Accordingly, restoration efforts are likely to exist more beneficial in some places than in others. This is of import to know when assessing whether trees are big enough to contribute logs that would grade pools in the side by side channels. The puddle-forming size of wood is also a function of channel width, and riparian stands accept recently been classified according to whether they had the chapters of forming salmon-holding pools in northwestern Washington State (Hyatt et al. 2004). Combining the classified stands with property ownership and threatened fish distribution led to a prioritization of riparian restoration location and strategies.

Conspicuously, it is important to assure a continued supply of large woody droppings of appropriate size, book, and species composition for the long-term integrity of streams (Naiman et al. 2002a). However it is likewise important to address the social and environmental trade-offs and constraints on introducing big woody debris to streams (run into Sidebar 8.two in Chapter eight). Woods accumulated and transported by floods tin can damage bridges and streets and is therefore frequently removed from rivers rather than being widely introduced. Millions of drifting trees and other driftwood have been removed from streams and rivers throughout N America and Europe to facilitate navigation and to reduce flooding over the last century (Maser and Sedell 1994). Compromises are necessary, based on a good knowledge of the pros and cons of forest introduction, as well equally on public instruction (AFFA 2001).

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Waste material Materials in Construction

Ruud Meij , in Studies in Environmental Science, 1997

two.ii Mass balance studies at power plants in 1980–1992

Following the reintroduction of coal as a fuel for ability plants, the environmental consequences for electricity generation accept been thoroughly studied; for case in the Dutch National Coal Enquiry Programme (NOK). A fairly important environmental aspect is trace elements. The concentrations and distributions of trace elements in coal, ash, and in flue-gas (in the vapour phase) were determined in xvi mass residuum studies in coal-fired power plants.

The start flue-gas desulphurization (FGD) system was installed in kingdom of the netherlands in unit 13 (CG-thirteen) of the Gelderland power plant in 1985. Extensive testing was performed at this unit in the following year (1986) in guild to study the fate of (trace) elements in a coal-fired power plant equipped with a moisture flue-gas desulphurization facility of the limestone/gypsum type. This aspect was researched in particular (Meij, 1989).

An important attribute in these mass balance studies are the relations between the various streams, from which relative parameters could be deduced.

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Ecohydrology and Restoration

L.A. Boorman , A. Garbutt , in Treatise on Estuarine and Littoral Science, 2011

x.09.5.eleven Soil Conditions

When the reintroduction of tidal flooding takes place, the cosmos of salt marshes occurs over soils that accept undergone a broad range of physical and chemical changes some of which are irreversible ( Hazelden and Boorman, 2001). These soils when flooded with saltwater withal show much college soil density and decreased porosity and are relatively unsuitable for colonization by salt marsh plants (Garbutt et al., 2006). The increased density and cohesiveness of these soils also form a bulwark to the development of a new creek system. The rapid drainage of an area as the tide ebbs is also of considerable importance for the establishment of salt marsh plants as whatsoever drying of the soil will increase its stability and thus facilitate seed establishment.

However, these problems associated with the soil conditions following inundation are partly solved by the deposition of fresh sediment following the breaching of the seawall. Following the flooding at Tollesbury in 1995, there has been a mean almanac increase in the surface level of 24.9   mm (Reading et al., 2001). This indicates that at that place is now an average of 174   mm of fresh sediment over the site although this has varied considerably at different points inside it. Nevertheless, information technology does mean that there should exist an adequate depth of soil for plant establishment and growth beyond most of the site. At the college levels, the institution of salt marsh plants has been generally successful with 12 species becoming established in the first v years. Constitute institution has been far slower at lower levels and at that place is a considerable difference in the lower limit of key pioneer species such as Salicornia within the site and in the bordering natural marshes.

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Conserving the Flora of Limestone Cedar Glade Communities of the Southeastern United States

Ashley B. Morris , ... Clayton J. Visger , in Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, 2021

Actions taken and subsequent outcomes

Conservation managers in Illinois have undertaken reintroduction and augmentation efforts using a mixed-source arroyo to increment numbers of populations and better reproductive success ( USFWS, 2015). Evidence suggests that these efforts have led to increases in genetic diverseness for managed sites in Illinois (Morris et al., in prep.), although overall genetic diversity in the species, particularly in marginal regions similar Illinois and Alabama, remains quite depression (Edwards et al., 2004; Morris et al., in prep). A comprehensive understanding of genetic differentiation amidst sites is critical for selecting seed sources for future restoration efforts throughout the species range. Complex genetic patterns amidst disjunct regions, every bit well as structure observed inside Tennessee, emphasize the need for a conservative approach to translocations. At this time, there have been no translocation or reintroduction efforts in Tennessee or Alabama. However, it is important to notation that Tennessee has recently received federal funding to support agile direction strategies in this species to complement long-term demographic monitoring that has occurred in that land. The funding will exist used to implement Strategic Habitat Conservation (SHC) for D. foliosa. SHC volition involve the identification and prioritization of direction and restoration needs for the species within Tennessee. This will include the evaluation of recovery sites and the implementation of targeted management to make sites suitable for reintroduction or institution of protected populations. Reintroduction efforts will be supported with additional written report of the population genetics structure so that appropriate source material is called for each site. Habitat management for D. foliosa in Tennessee has focused on invasive species eradication, mowing, mechanical thinning or removal of woody vegetation and prescribed burn down. Ane non-native invasive species, Chinese bushclover (Lespedeza cuneata (Dum. Cours.) Yard. Don; Fabaceae), is likewise a member of the Fabaceae and can co-occur with D. foliosa. Since both species respond similarly to herbicide treatment, a special approach has been used to target the application of herbicide to Lespedeza stems using a foam applicator while fugitive the Dalea stems. Since Lespedeza also responds positively to burn down, this arroyo has been needed to prepare sites for the reintroduction of prescribed burn. Lastly, a population monitoring plan will be enhanced to include the evaluation of demographic and habitat condition variables.

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Captive Breeding and Reintroduction

Katherine Ralls , Jonathan D. Ballou , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (Second Edition), 2013

Genetic and Demographic Management of Captive Populations

In contrast to husbandry of captive animals and reintroduction techniques, genetic and demographic direction methods are similar for all captive populations ( Ralls and Ballou, 1992; Ballou et al., 2010 ; Frankham et al., 2010). Genetic and demographic management of captive populations focuses on maintaining genetic diverseness in order to minimize undesirable genetic changes due to selection in the convict surround, avoid deleterious furnishings of inbreeding depression, and maintain hereafter options for genetic management.

Ideally, the first step in the evolution of a captive breeding is agreement among all concerned parties, such every bit agency personnel, nongovernmental conservation groups, and outside scientific advisers that such a program would benefit a particular species. One time in place, captive breeding programs have three phases. In the founding phase, the captive population is started. In the growth phase, the population rapidly increases to the final "target" population size specified by its managers. In the conveying capacity phase, the population is maintained at its target size and excess individuals may exist reintroduced into the wild (Effigy ane). Management concerns change every bit the captive population progresses through these phases.

Figure i. The development of a convict convenance and reintroduction program from the founding to the capacity phase.

The primary management concerns during the founding phase are removing individuals for the captive population with minimal impact on the wild population, acquiring enough founders from the wild to achieve genetic goals, getting the species to breed reliably in captivity, and setting general goals and plans for the captive population. Means to capture animals for the convict population with minimal impact on the wild population include removing eggs from nests, using orphaned or injured animals, and capturing dispersing juveniles. Many birds (e.g., condors) will ordinarily lay some other egg to replace an egg that has been removed, and dispersing juvenile mammals oft have high bloodshed rates in the wild. If the species is one that zoos do not know how to brood reliably in captivity, it is best to solve husbandry bug with but a few wild individuals or even animals of a closely related species.

Genetic goals for a captive population are normally specified in terms of the proportion of genetic variation (measured equally heterozygosity) to be maintained for a specified time. A mutual goal is to maintain 90% of the genetic multifariousness of the source population for 100 years. Even so, some programs use other fourth dimension frames. For case, the Guam runway and black-footed ferret programs are using the goal of "90% for l years" because of the curt generation times for these species (Table 1) and plans for the rapid establishment of several wild populations.

Table 1. The goals and number of founders of captive breeding programs with reintroduction components a

Species
California condor b Black-footed ferret Guam rail Gilt panthera leo tamarin
Heterozygosity goal (%) ninety 90 90 90
Length of programme (years) 200 l 50 200
Number of generations 10 20 22 33
Target population size 150 500 150 550
Number of wild-caught fourteen 18 21 69 east
Number of contributing founders c xiv 10 thirteen 45
Founder genome equivalents d 8 5 v 12
a
Species are listed in guild of increasing number of generations in the program length (reproduced from Ralls and Ballou, 1992).
b
Heterozygosity goal and program length take non been officially adopted past program managers; target population size is the minimum size of the captive population (which, with the two reintroduced populations in California and Arizona, should total no less than 450–500). Other information derived from Mace (2010).
c
Founders with currently living descendants.
d
The number of theoretically platonic founders taking into consideration loss of genetic diversity in the current captive population (Lacy, 1989).
e
Includes the number of wild-caught tamarins acquired after the captive program was initiated in 1981 in addition to the number of founders and wild-caught individuals alive at the initiation of the program.

In one case a genetic goal has been gear up, population genetics theory enables calculation of the number of founders needed for the captive population (the number of wild animals that must exist captured and successfully bred) and the target population size (the number of individuals that the population needs to abound to achieve its genetic goals). Planning to retain a higher proportion of genetic variation commonly increases the target population size. Increasing the number of founders reduces the size of the target population needed to accomplish a particular goal. Xx to 30 unrelated individuals are generally a sufficient number of founders. Unfortunately, many existing captive breeding programs were begun after it was already too late to acquire this many founders. For instance, the ferret population had only ten founders. If it had been possible to obtain 25 founders, the target population size could accept been reduced from 500 to 200 individuals. Although a small number of founders reduces the probability that a captive breeding program volition be successful, information technology does not doom it to failure. Thus, the lack of an ideal number of founders does non justify abandoning or failing to initiate a captive breeding plan.

The target population size also depends on the rate of species reproduction and generation length. A smaller target population will be required to accomplish the genetic goal if the species tin grow more rapidly each generation or if it has a long generation time (because genetic variation is lost due to genetic drift each time individuals reproduce). The target population size may also be express by practical considerations, such every bit the number of spaces available in zoos. Fewer zoos may be willing to participate in the program if the species is not attractive as an showroom. Thus, the target population size may exist a compromise between genetic and demographic factors and the limited resources available.

Once husbandry problems accept been solved and the species is breeding well in captivity, the residue of the founders should exist obtained as shortly as possible. Unfortunately, the number of animals that must be captured from the wild is usually greater than the number of founders needed. Wild-caught animals may exist related or fail to breed, or their descendants may fail to reproduce. For case, although 25 wild blackness-footed ferrets were captured, some died of distemper, some were known to be parents and offspring, and some failed to reproduce. Although ideally each founder would contribute an equal number of offspring to the convict population, those ferrets that did reproduce did and so unequally, skewing their genetic contributions to the captive population. Ultimately, the ferret population was founded by the theoretical genetic equivalent of only five ferrets; that is, five founder genome equivalents.

Direction efforts during the growth phase center on getting the population to increase as rapidly as possible. Rapid growth has two benefits: it increases the captive population's chances of survival and it retains as much of the founders' genetic diversity as possible. Small captive populations are at higher risk of extinction due to many factors, including random demographic events (such as a succession of male births), inbreeding depression, and unpredictable events that can kill numerous individuals such every bit diseases, fires, hurricanes, and other catastrophes.

The standard SSP breeding strategy used in the U.s. is designed to maximize the retention of genetic diversity. This is accomplished by minimizing mean kinship amidst the members of the captive population. Breeding pairs are formed based on mean kinship, beginning with the individuals with lowest mean kinships, until the desired number of pairs is attained. Efforts are also made to avert mating closely related individuals when forming new pairs. During the growth phase, this strategy is modified slightly to choose new pairs to minimize mean kinship as much equally possible but breed all individuals in the population.

Species living in groups, where individuals cannot be individually managed (i.east., fish in tanks, flocks of birds, some antelope herds), need to be managed differently. Hither genetic management focuses on maintaining multiple groups of individuals, periodically transferring individuals between groups, and for some species, restricting the number of offspring any ane individual tin can have (eastward.g., limiting the tenure of herd sires in an antelope herd).

Although managers attempt to minimize mean kinship and inbreeding during the growth phase, rapid population growth takes priority over genetic concerns, peculiarly when the population is very small and the risk of extinction outweighs the hazard of a few less-than-ideal matings. For instance, if a female person rejects the genetically ideal mate, she may be immune to mate with another male she prefers.

At some signal during the growth stage, the convict population usually is divided into subpopulations housed in different convenance facilities. This reduces the risk that a catastrophe such as disease or burn will decimate the unabridged captive population. To ensure that each subpopulation is as genetically various as possible, each should have individuals descended from each of the founders.

Once the population has reached the target size, relatively few offspring may be needed each year to maintain it at that level. Thus, genetic concerns get more important every bit managers need to make up one's mind exactly which individuals to breed in the population.

The number of offspring needed to maintain the convict population can exist calculated past standard demographic techniques. Any "actress" offspring tin be used for reintroduction. If there are more offspring than are needed for reintroduction, managers tin forestall some adults from breeding either by using contraceptives or past housing them individually or in same sex groups.

At that place are two general strategies for producing the individuals to be reintroduced. If the date of a reintroduction endeavour tin be scheduled well in accelerate and the species has a predictable breeding blueprint (such as breeding once a yr during the bound), males and females can be paired upwards for the specific purpose of producing excess immature for that detail reintroduction. However, if the appointment of a reintroduction endeavor is difficult to predict in advance (this may occur due to difficulties with funding or permits), animals for reintroduction can be selected from the existing population and breeding pairs tin exist set upwards to supervene upon the reintroduced individuals.

In the early stages of a reintroduction program, reintroduction techniques are still being refined and mortality may exist high. Thus, initially the most genetically expendable individuals are ordinarily released. Later, emphasis volition gradually shift to choosing individuals that are not closely related to the individuals already present in the wild population. This maximizes the genetic multifariousness of the wild population. The final genetic goal is to make the wild population equally genetically diverse as the captive population.

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Thermochemical Treatment of Plastic Solid Waste matter

Paola Lettieri , Sultan Grand. Al-Salem , in Waste, 2011

2.1 Re-extrusion and Mechanical Recycling

Re-extrusion , or chief recycling, is the reintroduction of scrap, industrial or unmarried-polymer plastic edges and parts to the extrusion cycle to produce products of the like textile. This procedure utilizes semi-clean scrap plastics that accept similar features to the original products [ix]. Currently, most of the recycled PSW is procedure scrap from industry which is recycled via primary recycling techniques. In the Uk, process scrap represents 0.25 × x6 t of the plastic waste and approximately 95% of it is master recycled [ix]. Primary recycling can also involve the re-extrusion of mail-consumer plastics; more often than not, households are the main source of such waste stream. This blazon of recycling yet is non the about cost constructive every bit information technology involves collecting relatively modest quantities of mixed PSW from a large number of sources.

Mechanical recycling (i.e. secondary or textile recycling) is the process in which PSW is used in the manufacturing of plastic products via mechanical means, using recyclates, fillers and/or virgin polymers [seven,10]. Mechanical recycling of PSW can simply be performed on single-polymer plastic. Examples of products institute in our daily lives that come from mechanical recycling processes are grocery bags, pipes, gutters, window and door profiles, shutters, blinds and and then on. The more complex and contaminated the waste, the more than difficult it is to recycle information technology mechanically [xi,12]. Separation, washing, preparation and granulation of PSW are all essential to produce high quality, clear, clean and homogeneous terminate products [12,13]. Ane of the master issues that face up mechanical recyclers is the degradation and heterogeneity of PSW.

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Convict Convenance and Reintroduction

Katherine Ralls , Robin Meadows , in Encyclopedia of Biodiversity, 2001

Five. Reintroducing Convict-Bred Animals to the Wild

Ideally, the goals of all convict convenance plans would include reintroduction dorsum to the wild. However, some species may be impossible to reintroduce due to lack of habitat or other problems. Furthermore, some species volition be easier to reintroduce than others. Marker Stanley Price, former chairman of the IUCN Reintroduction Specialist Group, suggests that the species that may be easiest to reintroduce include large species with few predators, those living in herds or other social groups, those that tend to explore new habitat, and those that tin tolerate a wide range of habitat atmospheric condition.

The elements of a successful reintroduction program involving captive-bred mammals are shown in Table II. These elements include research on both the captive and wild populations, habitat preservation and management, conservation educational activity to ensure long-term support of the program, and careful management and monitoring of the reintroduced individuals. The IUCN also offers a set up of guidelines that discusses the biological, socioeconomic, and legal requirements for successful reintroduction.

Table II. The Elements of a Successful Captive Breeding and Reintroduction Plan a

Captive population
  Ongoing research in behavior, genetics, physiology, diet, reproduction, and pathology
  Genetic and demographic direction of the population
  Self-sustaining viable convict population
Field studies
  Regular censuses of the size, distribution, and genetics of the wild population
  Behavioral ecology studies (abode range size, movements, habitat preferences, social organizations, mating system, feeding, and antipredator adaptions)
  Locating existing suitable habitat containing disquisitional resources for reintroduction
Habitat preservation and direction
  Protection of habitat from degradation and exploitation
  Restoration and management of degraded habitats
  Increase in or maintenance of the number of preservation areas
Conservation education for long-term support
  Professional training through bookish studies, workshops, internships, courses, and fellowships
  Determining the most appropriate public relations and educational strategies through surveys
  Public relations educational efforts using appropriate mass media (e.yard., television, radio, magazines, and newspapers)
  Local customs instruction, both formal and informal
Preparation and reintroductions of animals
  Choice of candidates and assessment of their characters for retrospective correlation with postrelease survival
  Preparation in survival techniques, including foraging and feeding, antipredator tactics, locomotion, and orientation
  Adaption to local conditions at release site (food, climate and temperature, and disease)
  Release and long-term monitoring to evaluate causes of death and basis for survival
a
From Kleinman (1989).

Near important, reintroduction is a realistic goal merely when habitat protection is an integral part of the species' overall conservation plan. A species should not be reintroduced unless the factors that led to its reject in the wild have been identified and eliminated—or at least profoundly reduced—and suitable legally protected habitat exists. In addition, the release site should be inside the species' historic range. Occasionally, nonetheless, a species must be "reintroduced" into areas of suitable habitat exterior of its celebrated range. For case, the Guam track is beingness reintroduced to the nearby island of Rota because the nonnative brown tree serpent, which led to the bird'southward extinction in the wild, has invaded its entire historic range on Guam. Similarly, a diversity of species, including birds, reptiles, and invertebrates, from New Zealand and Commonwealth of australia are beingness reintroduced to offshore islands that are free of the not-native predators that led to their extinction on the mainland.

There are many other factors to consider when reintroducing captive-bred individuals. For instance, the release of captive-bred animals can spread diseases to an existing wild population or disrupt its social organization. Thus, information technology is advisable to screen captive-bred individuals for diseases prior to release and to release them in habitat that has no wild individuals.

When reintroduced to the wild, convict-bred individuals are likely to suffer high mortality rates due to inappropriate behavior. For instance, they may take difficulty finding enough food or fail to avoid predators. It has proven very difficult to help orphaned sea otter pups raised in captivity develop advisable foraging skills and teach them to avoid humans. Captive-bred condors develop appropriate foraging skills adequately easily but often fail to avoid humans and human structures. Substantial research programs are often needed to develop husbandry and reintroduction techniques that will promote behaviors needed for survival in the wild.

The weather nether which captive-bred individuals are raised tin be critical. The evolution of appropriate survival skills may require a skilled parent or a item stimulus at some critical flow during evolution. For instance, adult ferrets prefer eating whatever they were fed when they were two or 3 months old, which is when ferrets develop their permanent teeth. Therefore, at the age of 2 or iii months, captive ferrets should be fed prairie dogs, their exclusive prey in the wild. Methods of reintroduction may too require enquiry. For example, should the animals exist released as social groups or every bit individuals? Should they exist fed after they are released and, if so, for how long? The answers to such questions depend on the item species being reintroduced. Reintroduction programs using convict-bred individuals are usually expensive, lengthy, complex, and difficult. Thus, the decision to brainstorm such a program should non be fabricated lightly. A brusque checklist of the major factors that should exist considered when deciding whether or non to reintroduce a species is illustrated in Table III with respect to iii species of lion tamarins. Answers to the questions in the checklist indicate that reintroduction is appropriate for golden lion tamarins but non the other ii species because the causes of their reject take not been eliminated and funds to support a reintroduction programme are non bachelor.

Table III. Checklist for Deciding Whether or Not Advisable Conditions Be for Beginning a Reintroduction Programme Applied to 3 Species of Lion Tamarins a

King of beasts tamarin species
Golden Gilded-headed Black
Condition of species
  i. Need to augment wild popn. Yeah No Yes(?)
  ii. Available stock Yes Aye No
  three. No jeopardy to wild popn. ? ? ?
Environmental weather
  iv. Causes of reject removed ? No No
  5. Sufficient protected habitat Yes(?) No Yes
  6. Unsaturated habitat Aye Aye(?) ?
Biopolitical conditions
  7. No negative bear upon for locals No ? ?
  8. Customs support exists 5 ii iv
  9. GOs/NGOs supportive/involved Aye Yeah Yep
  10. Conformity with all laws/regulations Yes ? ?
Biological and other resource
  11. Reintroduction technology known/in development 4 iii 3
  12. Cognition of species' biology 5 i.five 3
  13. Sufficient resource be for program Aye No No
Recommended reintroduction/translocation? Yes No No
a
Adapted from Kleiman (1990).

There are no generally accepted guidelines for declaring the success of a reintroduction effort. Beck and colleagues (1994) suggested ii possible criteria: if 500 wild individuals survived without man support or if a formal population viability analysis predicted that the population would be self-sustaining. Past these criteria, they judged that just eleven% of 145 animal reintroductions were successful.

Nevertheless, many of the reintroduction programs they considered are still in progress and it is likewise early on to evaluate their success. For example, techniques for breeding and reintroducing blackness-footed ferrets have greatly improved and are however improving. Since 1986, the black-footed ferret program has released 873 captive-bred ferrets at five sites. The combined wild population is probably larger than the captive population, which is maintained at 240 convenance individuals. In 1998, more than xxx litters containing more than 100 pups were built-in in the wild.

Successful captive convenance and reintroduction programs require sustained long-term, fairly funded efforts. Enquiry can solve many problems involved in successfully breeding a species in captivity and reintroducing it to the wild. However, the ultimate success of many programs, such as that for the ferret, volition depend on whether or not we are able to preserve plenty suitable habitat to sustain feasible wild populations of the species.

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